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گروه زبان ناحیه 3

 Happy new year

 

I want you to know                                   
one thing.

You know how this is:
if I look
at the crystal moon, at the red branch
of the slow autumn at my window,
if I touch
near the fire
the impalpable ash
or the wrinkled body of the log,
everything carries me to you,
as if everything that exists,
aromas, light, metals,
were little boats
that sail
toward those isles of yours that wait for me.

Well, now,
if little by little you stop loving me
I shall stop loving you little by little.

If suddenly
you forget me
do not look for me,
for I shall already have forgotten you.

If you think it long and mad,
the wind of banners
that passes through my life,
and you decide
to leave me at the shore
of the heart where I have roots,

 

when you call me I'll be there  because  you are my best friend.

 So I'm looking for you during these best days .



  



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( آریا اویژگی های یک ترجمه ی خوب ادبی

 

دیب )

                                                                   

 

 از نظر همه ی اهل فن، ترجمه ی خوب و موفق ادبی آن ترجمه ای است که بتواند به پرسش های هفتگانه ی زیر پاسخ مثبت بدهد:

۱- آیا ترجمه، مفهوم متن اصلی را رسانده است؟

پاسخ درست به این پرسش در درجه ی نخست بستگی به این دارد که مترجم نه تنها به زبان خود از دید ادبی وارد باشد تا بتواند مفهومی را که از متن خارجی گرفته است به طرز درستی به زبان خود بیان کند، بلکه باید چه با معلومات اکتسابی خود در تحصیل زبانی که از آن ترجمه می کند و چه از راه کمک گرفتن از کتاب های فرهنگ، مفهوم درست متن را دریابد.    

   به عنوان مثال درست است که واژه ی "گره ناد" در زبان فرانسه به معنی انار و "گره نادیه" به معنی درخت انار است، ولی اولی به معنی نارنجک و دومی به معنی نارنجک انداز هم هست و مترجمی جمله ای فرانسوی را چنین ترجمه کرده بود: «دو درخت انار در راه فرانسه خشک می شدند» و حال آن که منظور نویسنده این بود: «دو نارنجک انداز به فرانسه برمی گشتند». اشتباه گرفتن نارنجک انداز با درخت انار باز محملی دارد، ولی روشن نیست چرا مترجم فعل فرانسوی "برگشتن" را به "خشک شدن" ترجمه کرده است؟ لابد فکر کرده بوده که درخت که نمی تواند برگردد، پس منظور از برگشتن درخت، خشک شدن آن است. دیگر فکر نکرده بود که در راه فرانسه درخت اناری وجود ندارد.

۲- آیا لحن نویسنده حفظ شده است؟

نویسندگان همه مثل هم نیستند و سبک نگارش و زبان ایشان به تناسب ویژگی های روحی و فکری و اخلاقی شان با هم فرق می کند. نیکوس کازانتساکیس نویسنده ی یونانی، آدمی بوده است شوخ و بذله گو و خوش طبع و خوش بیان. رومن رولان نویسنده ی فرانسوی آدمی بوده است خشک و جدی. آناتول فرانتس مردی بوده است شیرین زبان ولی همیشه در گفته هایش از نیش زدن و طنز و تمسخر دریغ نمی کرده است. نویسنده ای مانند سنت اگزوپری (نویسنده ی شازده کوچولو) طبعی حساس و شاعرانه داشته است و دیگری چنین خصوصیاتی نداشته است. این ویژگی های روحی و فکری و ذوقی نویسندگان بی شک در نوشته های آنان بازتاب می یابد. و به عنوان مثال اگر شما به آثار نیکوس کازانتساکیس مانند "آزادی یا مرگ" یا "مسیح باز مصلوب" یا "زوربای یونانی" نگاه کنید پی می برید که شوخ طبعی و لوندی از سر تا پای کلمات او می ریزد.

بر عکس، اگر کناب "مهاتما گاندی" اثر رومن رولان یا یکی دیگر از کارهای او را بخوانید، می بینید که آن بزرگوار اندک لحن شوخی و مسخرگی یا شیرین زبانی و طنز گویی در گفتار و قلمش نیست و عین مطلب مورد نظرش را خشک و بی پیرایه به روی کاغذ آورده است. یا اگر "جزیره ی پنگوئن ها"ی آناتول فرانس را بخوانید، می بینید که آن مرد چه اندازه طنز و تمسخر در گفتار و در نوشته هایش دارد.

مترجم موفق آن است که در ترجمه اش بتواند همان خصیصه های گفته شده ی مربوط به هر نویسنده را حفظ کند و لحن ترجمه اش در ترجمه ی اثری از مثلن آناتول فرانتس با مارسل پروست فرق داشته باشد.

مترجم ممکن است متن را فهمیده باشد، ولی لحن کلام را درنیافته باشد. ما در فارسی مثلی داریم که می گوییم بفرما و بنشین و بتمرگ هر سه به یک معنی است، ولی میان لحن کلام "بفرما" با لحن "بتمرگ" زمین تا آسمان فرق است. حال اگر مترجم محترم "بفرما" را "بنشین" یا "بتمرگ" یا برعکس، ترجمه کند، مفهوم متن را رسانده ولی لحن متن اصلی را مراعات نکرده است.

۳- آیا مترجم زبان خاص و متناسب با متن را دریافته است؟

نویسنده ای چون سروانتس که چهار صد سال پیش می زیسته یا چون بوکاچیو که هم دوره ی حافظ و مولانا عبید بوده است، یا رابله ی فرانسوی یا شکسپیر انگلیسی در زمان هایی می زیسته اند که نثر آن ها با نثر امروزی فرق داشته است. چنان که نثر مرزبان نامه یا کلیله و دمنه یا گلستان سعدی با نثر معاصر ما مثلن با نوشته های محمد حجاری یا بزرگ علوی یا جمال زاده فرق دارد. من اگر "دن کیشوت" سروانتس که مربوط به چهار سال پیش است یا "دکامرون" بوکاچیو که در ششصد سال پیش نوشته شده است را با همان نثر و زبانی ترجمه کرده بودم که مثلن "شازده کوچولو"ی سنت اگزوپری یا "نان و شراب" اینیاتسیو سیلونه را ترجمه کرده ام، بدون شک ترجمه ی موفقی نمی شد. این جا است که مترجم توانا آقای نجف دریابندری در یکی از نوشته هایشان به این نکته اشاره کرده و گفته است که: «محمد قاضی در ترجمه ی "دن کیشوت" زبان خاص متناسب با متن را دریافته است». حتا در میان آثار نویسندگان هم دوره نیز اختلاف زبان وجود دارد.

یک نویسنده ادبی و کتابی می نویسد، دیگری عامیانه یا به اصطلاح "آرگو" می نویسد. یکی نثرش زیبا و شاعرانه است و دیگری خشک و روزنامه ای است. مترجم باید حواسش را جمع کند و زبان متناسب با نوشته ی اصلی را بیابد. رعایت این نکات است که ترجمه را از حالت فن و حرفه ی صرف بودن در می آورد و به آن جنبه ی هنری می دهد و بدین ترتیب هر خواننده ای از خواندن این ترجمه ها پی می برد که زبان نویسندگان مختلف با هم فرق داشته است.

۴- آیا مترجم واژه های درست و دقیق و خوش آهنگی به جای واژه های متن اصلی برگزیده است؟      واژه ها در زبان های خارجی نیز همچون در زبان فارسی معنی های متعدد دارند و گاه برعکس، برای یک معنی واحد واژه های گوناگون هست. در "دن کیشوت"، سروانتس با لحن خاص خود آن پهلوان پنبه را به صورت کسی توصیف کرده است که همیشه قیافه ی غم زده و محزونی دارد و من آن را به صورت "پهلوان افسرده سیما" آوردم که به گمانم از "پهلوان غمگین چهره" یا "محزون قیافه" خوش آهنگ تر است. برگزیدن واژه های خوش آهنگ و درست و دقیق یکی از جنبه های هنری کار ترجمه است که بر ارج و قدر آن به اندازه ی زیادی می افزاید.

۵- آیا منرجم در ترجمه ی خود، دستور زبان را رعایت کرده است؟

درست بودن هر نوشته بسته به آن است که در آن اصول و قاعده های دستور زبان رعایت شده باشد، وگر نه، آن نوشته غلط و از دید ادبی بدون ارزش خواهد بود. به کار بردن واژه هایی که از نظر دستوری نادرست هستند نیز مشمول این شرط است. در ترجمه ای به واژه ی "گزارشات" برخوردم که دلم به هم خورد. جمع بستن "گزارش" که یک واژه ی زیبای فارسی است با "ات" عربی از آن کج سلیقگی های زننده است و نیز اغلب دیده ام که در نرجمه رعایت فعل ها به مقتضای زمان نشده است یا این که ضمیر "آن ها" که ویژه ی اشیاء است برای اشخاص به کار رفته است و به جای آن که بنویسد: "آنان" یا "ایشان" رفتند، نوشته است: آن ها رفتند. این مراعات نکردن دستور زبان نیز که به درست نویسی مربوط می شود، در پایین آوردن ارزش ترجمه و هر نوشته ی دیگری بسیار موثر است.

٦- آیا طول کلام یا برعکس، ایجاز نویسنده ی اصلی رعایت شده است؟

این مساله به امانت در ترجمه مربوط می شود. گاه پیش می آید که نویسنده ی اصلی مطلبی را در یک کلمه یا در یک جمله ی کوتاه بیان کرده است. ولی می بینیم که مترجم آن را برای ادای مقصود کافی ندانسته و به شرح و بسط آن می پردازد که البته به خود نویسنده ربطی ندارد و مترجم از خودش آورده است.

پیدا است که چنین کاری از رعایت امانت به دور است و اگر به راستی هم آن واژه یا آن جمله نیاز به شرح و بسط بیش تری داشته باشد، مترجم خوب است که در پاورقی یا پی نوشت به شرح و تفسیر آن بپردازد و بنویسد که مثلن در این جا منظور نویسنده چنین و چنان است. مترجم معروفی که نیازی به نامیدن او نیست، گاه بوده که یک کتاب ششصد صفحه ای را در یک صد یا یک صد و بیست صفحه آورده و گاه برعکس، از یک اثر صد صفحه ای کتابی به حجم و قطر سیصد چهار صفحه ساخته است. پیدا است که در هر دو مورد ترجمه وفادار نیست و ربطی به متن اصلی ندارد و از این رو نمی توان ارزشی برای آن قایل شد.

در ادبیات خودمان نیز می بینیم که مثلن خیام یا سعدی یا حافظ یک دنیا مطلب را در یک بیت یا رباعی یا یک قطعه گنجانده اند، حال اگر مترجم فرانسوی یا انگلیسی یا هر زبان دیگری از آن بیت یا رباعی یا قطعه کتابی بنویسد، این دیگر ترجمه نیست، تفسیر است.

۷-  آیا به نقطه گذاری (نشانه های نگارشی) اهمیت لازم داده شده است؟

در زبان فارسی کلاسیک، نقطه گذاری ِ مرسوم در نوشته های خارجی، وجود نداشت و از این رو مثلن یک متن پرسشی را به لحن عادی می خواندند و یا معلوم نبود که جمله در کجا به پایان رسیده یا نرسیده و این مساله مشکلات بسیاری را در کار خواندن پیش می آورد. اصول نقطه گذاری و به کارگیری نشانه های نگارشی از هنگام آشنایی با ادبیات خارجی، در نوشته های فارسی نیز وارد شده و لازم است که مترجم در متن خود آن ها را رعایت کند تا جمله های پرسشی از جمله های تعجبی و تحسینی تمیز داده شود و معلوم شود که جمله در کجا به پایان رسیده یا نقل قول از کیست و همه ی نکات دیگر "نقطه گذاری" punctuation تامین شود.

از مجموعه ی اصول و قاعده هایی که در بالا گفتیم و رعایت آن ها را در ترجمه شرط لازم برای کام یابی و توفیق در این کار دانستیم، چنین نتیجه می گیریم که به طور کلی کار ترجمه دارای دو بخش بنیادی است:

۱- یافتن مفهوم و پیام بیان شده در متن مورد ترجمه.

۲- یافتن لحن و سبک نویسنده و بازتاب دادن آن در متن ترجمه.

بخش نخست را "معادل مفهوم" و بخش دوم را "معادل سبک" می نامند و مجموع آن ها "معادل کامل متن اصلی" خوانده می شود.

در متن های ادبی، سبک شامل ویژگی هایی مانند لحن سخن، طنز و لطیفه، زبان ادبی یا عامیانه، انتخاب وازه ها، بازی با کلمات، فشرده یا بسیط بودن یا کوتاه و بلند بودن جملات و نقطه گذاری است.

- - - محمد قاضی

از: درباره ی هنر و ادبیات، به کوشش ناصر حریری، کتاب سرای بابل، بابل، ۱۳٦٧


 

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 فراخوان طراحی سوال  استاندارد  پایه های اول تا سوم دبیرستان  درس زبان خارجه

چگونگی طرح سوال:

سوالات باید دارای سر برگ مشخص به خصوص تاریخ  و زمان امتحان

سوالات دارای تیترهای روشن وواضح باشند.

سوالات باید  از ساده به مشکل  پیش بروند.

سولات قسمت واژگان باید نکات واژگان مورد پرسش قرار بگیرند.

بارم سوالات  باید با سوال متناسب باشند.

یک سوال نباید دارای پاسخ سوال دیگر باشد.

 

 1- دیکته باید شامل حداقل 12 کلمه برای 3 نمره باشد  و توجه شود کلمات در متن سوالات به کار برده نشود.

 2- سوالات واژگان  باید به صورت های زیر پرسیده شود:

 الف- جایگزین کردن کلمات در این بخش جملات باید از نظر نگارش و گرامر مفهوم کاملی داشته باشند.

ب- پیدا کردن یا نوشتن کلمات هم معنی  ویا متضاد 

ج- به صورت چهار جوابی باشد

                         3- بخش گرامر ک الف -  به صورت گزینه ای  باشد

                        ب- نوشتن جمله وترکیب درست گرامری تدریس شده در دروس کتاب

پ- هماهنگ کردن جملات با جملات هم گون خود برای شناسای دانش  دانش اموز  جهت ساخت درست یک جمله  گرامری

 

 تذکر :  در قسمت چهار جوابی ( تستی )  حتما باید فقط نکات گرامری ارزیابی شود وسوالات مخلوطی از گرامر وواژگان نباشند.

  

4- داشتن یک سوال تصویری الزامی است  وتصویر باید روشن ومفهوم و هماهنگ با پرسش  باشد.

 

5- بخش کاربرد زبان  : 2 تا 3 نمره میباشد که به 2 صورت امتحان گرفته میشود

 الف – هماهنگ کردن  جملات با هم                 ب- نوشتن قسمت حذف شده

 

6- قسمت تلفظ : این بخش   1 تا2 نمره را شامل میشود  یا به صورت جدول که مرتب کردن کلمات داده شده است. / ویا پیدا کردن یک کلمه متفاوت از نظر تلفظ.

 

 

. :   Cloze passage 7-

  در این بخش بهتر است یک متن از درس انتخاب شود ساخت یک متن cloze:

1-  اولین جمله نباید جا خالی داشته باشد.

2- حداقل فاصله دو جا خالی باید 7 کلمه و حداکثر باید 13 کلمه باشد.

3- یک cloze   مشخصا باید یا سوال از اندوخته های گرامری دانش اموز باشد ویا واژگان وی

 به لحاظ اینکه شاگردان پایه های اول تا سوم کمتر توجه به مفاهیم  دروس میکنند  شایان توجه است که از طریق این نمونه سوالات دانش آموزان بیشتر سر کلاس دقت خواهند کرد.

 

 8- قسمت درک مطلب: الف- که معمولا یک متن انتخابی بر اساس اندوخته های واژگان وگرمری دانش آموزان انتخاب میشود بهتر است ازین به بعد  متون انتخابی خیلی  پیش پبا افتاده و کوتاه نباشند .

 

ب- بهتر است که سوالات درک مطلب هم  به صورت  روشن وواضح) explicit )     ویا به صورت (ضمنی  یا مفهومی)) implicit    باشد.

( سوالات : 2سوال نوشتاری  // 2 سوال چهارجوابی // 2 سوال  به صورت درست  یا غلط باشد.

 

 تذکر : تمامی سوالات اول تا سوم شامل 30 نمره  + 10 نمره شفاهی  در تمامی سه نوبت امتحانی میباشد.

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English As A Second Language

Posted on August 11th, 2011 by Nikol Hasler 848 Comments

Top 5 Free Websites to Learn English

Are you learning English and need help with grammar or verb conjugation? Do you want to learn new vocabulary or slang? No matter if you are a beginner, intermediate or advanced student, you can find help online with these free English as a Second Language websites.

 

1- Dave’s ESL Cafe

This is a complete website that can help you learn and practice English. You can find tips on using idioms, slang and phrasal verbs. Take quizzes to test your knowledge and practice English-language concepts. You can also post questions and get answers on the help center and student forums.

 

2- About.com English as a Second Language e-mail courses

Sign up for free English courses from About.com and you’ll get regular e-mails that will help you learn English. Choose from the following:

 

3- The Classroom by Voice of America

Watch videos and listen to news stories to improve your listening and vocabulary skills. Also, find basic, intermediate and advanced activities to learn English.  You can also hear English words and their meaning.

 

4- Heinle’s Newbury House Dictionary of American English

Do you need to find the definition of a word? Use this online dictionary to find simple and clear definitions, as well as sample sentences and idioms. You can also find cultural facts and figures.

 

5- Private English Portal on YouTube

Watch this series of videos with subtitles on YouTube designed to help English learners develop their listening and comprehension skills. You can also do a search for “learn English” on YouTube to find other videos.

 

Don’t forget to visit your local library to find more resources to help you learn English.

 

* While your comments are welcome, any comments containing your telephone number will be deleted. We need to protect all users.

 

 

 

 

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How to learn vocabulary

Introduction

Learning vocabulary is a very important part of learning a language. The more words you know, the more you will be able to understand what you hear and read; and the better you will be able to say what you want to when speaking or writing.

Which words to learn

Every day you hear or read many new English words. You also find them in your dictionary when you are translating from your own language. You can’t possibly learn all these new words, so your first problem is to decide which ones to concentrate on. Here are some suggestions:

  • learn the words that are important to the subjects you are studying
  • learn the words that you read or hear again and again
  • learn the words that you know you will often want to use yourself
  • do not learn words that are rare or not useful (your teacher can help you with this)

How to learn words

Once you have chosen which words to learn, you next have to decide how you are going to learn them. Here are a few ideas:

  • write the words in a notebook (with their translations or definitions)
  • write the words and definitions on small cards
    (advice on how to do this)
  • say the words many times (if you have an electronic dictionary you can hear how the word is pronounced)
  • put the words into different groups (you could use a graphic organiser)
  • write them in a file for use with a computer program
  • make associations (in pictures or with other words)
  • ask someone to test you
  • use the words in your own speaking or writing

Some students put a tick or cross in their dictionary next to every word they look up. The next time they turn to a page with a marked word, they quickly check to see if they remember the meaning of that word.

In all of the above ways, you are doing something with the words. It’s usually not enough to just read through a list of words with their definitions or translations and try to remember them. Most students find that they memorise words better if they do something with them. Even better is to try and learn the word in a typical combination with other words. Learning that to apologize means to say sorry is a good start, but it's much better to learn a whole expression containing the word, e.g. He apologized for being late. Not only is this often easier to remember, but you are also learning some very important information on how the word is used.

Learning vocabulary by reading

The way you learned very many of the words in your own language was by meeting them in the books and magazines you read. The context of a new word in a sentence or story was often enough for you to guess the meaning. Meeting the word again and again in your reading helped you learn it for use in your own speaking and writing. Doing lots of extra reading for pleasure - both fiction and non-fiction - is an excellent way to learn new English words, too. But choose books that you find quite easy to read. Difficult stories or texts that you struggle to understand will not help you to develop your vocabulary the natural way. But remember: to learn new words from reading you have to read A LOT!More on the importance of reading.

More information about learning words

The vocabulary you know can be divided into two groups - passive vocabulary and active vocabulary. Passive vocabulary contains all the words that you understand when you read or listen, but which you do not use (or cannot remember) in your own writing and speaking. Active vocabulary is all the words you understand, plus all the words that you can use yourself. Your active vocabulary, in English and your own language, is probably much smaller than your passive vocabulary.The more you work on learning a word, as suggested above, the more likely it is that it will become part of your active vocabulary.

Things to know about the words you learn

Usually the first things you learn about a new English word are what it means and its translation in your own language. But there are other things you need to find out before you can say that you know a word like a native speaker does. For example, you have to learn:how it is spelled

  • how it is pronounced
  • how it is inflected (i.e. how it changes if it is a verb, noun or adjective)
  • other grammar information about it
  • how it collocates (i.e. what other words are often used with it)More on collocation
  • if it has a particular style or register

Native speakers learn these things about words by hearing them and reading them again and again. This is the best way for you to learn them, too. Go to this site's vocabulary files


"Most students find that they memorise words better if they do something with them. Even better is to try and learn the word in a typical combination with other words

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Tips for using proverbs and idioms in class

  • Deal with proverbs and idioms as and when they crop up in their contexts, such as in reading and listening tasks or when you use one naturally in class.
  • Group the sayings by topic and introduce in conjunction with other activities around the topic. For example, teach several ‘body idioms’ together. E.g. to be head and shoulders above the rest, to be long in the tooth, to shoot yourself in the foot etc. It will be easier for students to remember some of them if they’re in groups.
  • Use visuals and pictures to help learners remember them. For example, draw a bid in the hand and two in the bush.
  • Do some matching activities. For example, give students five proverbs that have been cut in half and get them to match them up.
  • Ask students if any of the proverbs translate directly into their own language. Most of the time students will know a similar expression in their language and it can help them to remember them if they compare the differences between English and their language.
  • Put them into context. Try to use situations when people actually use the expressions and get students to create dialogues or role-play and to use a few of the proverbs to reinforce the meaning.
  • Explain to students that it may be more useful for them to be able to understand the expressions when they hear them than to be able to produce them. Ask them how they would react if you used this type of expression in their language. Would they find it a bit strange?
  • Don’t overload students with too many at a time. Five is probably a good number for one class.
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Title Present Perfect - Form

1. Present Perfect - Form

The present perfect of any verb is composed of two elements : the appropriate form of the auxiliary verb to have (present tense), plus the past participle of the main verb. The past participle of a regular verb is base+ed, e.g. played, arrived, looked. For irregular verbs, see the Table of irregular verbs in the section called ''Verbs''.

Affirmative

Subject

to have

past participle

She

has

visited

Negative

Subject

to have + not

past participle

She

hasn''t

visited

Interrogative

to have

subject

past participle

Has

she

visited..?

Interrogative negative

to have + not

subject

past participle

Hasn''t

she

visited...?

Example: to walk, present perfect

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

I have walked

I haven''t walked

Have I walked?

You have walked

You haven''t walked

Have you walked?

He, she, it has walked

He, she, it hasn''t walked

Has he,she,it walked

We have walked

We haven''t walked

Have we walked?

You have walked

You haven''t walked

Have you walked?

They have walked

They haven''t walked

Have they walked?

2. Present perfect, function

The Present Perfect is used to indicate a link between the present and the past. The time of the action is before now but not specified, and we are often more interested in the result than in the action itself.

BE CAREFUL! There may be a verb tense in your language with a similar form, but the meaning is probably NOT the same.

The Present Perfect is used to describe:

  1. An action or situation that started in the past and continues in the present. Example: I have lived in Bristol since 1984 (= and I still do.)
  2. An action performed during a period that has not yet finished. Example: She has been to the cinema twice this week (= and the week isn''t over yet.)
  3. A repeated action in an unspecified period between the past and now. Example: We have visited Portugal several times.
  4. An action that was completed in the very recent past, (expressed by ''just''). Example: I have just finished my work.
  5. An action when the time is not important. Example: He has read ''War and Peace''. (the result of his reading is important)

Note: When we want to give or ask details about when, where, who, we use the simple past. Example: He read ''War and Peace'' last week.

Examples:

1. Actions started in the past and continuing in the present.

  • They haven''t lived here for years.
  • She has worked in the bank for five years.
  • We have had the same car for ten years.
  • Have you played the piano since you were a child?

2. When the time period referred to has not finished.

  • I have worked hard this week.
  • It has rained a lot this year.
  • We haven''t seen her today.

3. Actions repeated in an unspecified period between the past and now.

  • They have seen that film six times.
  • It has happened several times already.
  • She has visited them frequently.
  • We have eaten at that restaurant many times.

4. Actions completed in the very recent past (+just).

  • Have you just finished work?
  • I have just eaten.
  • We have just seen her.
  • Has he just left?

5. When the precise time of the action is not important or not known.

  • Someone has eaten my soup!
  • Have you seen ''Gone with the Wind''?
  • She''s studied Japanese, Russian and English.

 

 

  • in questions. e.g.
    Have you ever been to England?
    Has she ever met the Prime Minister?
  • in negative questions e.g.
    Haven''t they ever been to Europe?
    Haven''t you ever eaten Chinese food?
  • and in negative statements using the pattern nothing.......ever, nobody.......ever e.g.
    Nobody
    has ever said that to me before.
    Nothing like this has ever happened to us.
  • ''Ever'' is also used with ''The first time.... e.g.
    It''s the first time (that) I''ve ever eaten snails.
    This is the first time I''ve ever been to England.

''Never'' means at no time before now, and is the same as not ..... ever:

  • I have never visited Berlin

BE CAREFUL!

You must not use never and not together:

  • I haven''t never been to Italy.
  • I have never been to Italy.

Position

''Ever'' and ''never'' are always placed before the main verb (past participle).

Already and yet

Already

refers to an action that has happened at an unspecified time before now. It suggests that there is no need for repetition, e.g.
a. I''ve already drunk three coffees this morning. (and you''re offering me another one!)
b. Don''t write to John, I''ve already done it.

It is also used in questions:

  • Have you already written to John?
  • Has she finished her homework already?

Position

already can be placed before the main verb (past participle) or at the end of the sentence:

  • I have already been to Tokyo.
  • I have been to Tokyo already.

Yet

is used in negative statements and questions, to mean (not) in the period of time between before now and now, (not) up to and including the present. e.g.

  • Have you met Judy yet?
  • I haven''t visited the Tate Gallery yet.
  • Has he arrived yet?
  • They haven''t eaten yet.

Position

Yet is usually placed at the end of the sentence

How to choose between the Present Perfect and Simple Past Tenses

  • Always use the Present Perfect when the time is not important, or not specified.
  • Always use the Simple Past when details about the time or place are specified or asked for.

Compare:

Present Perfect

Simple Past

I have lived in Lyon.

I lived in Lyon in 1989.

They have eaten Thai food.

They ate Thai food last night.

Have you seen ''Othello''?.

Where did you see ''Othello''?

We have been to Ireland.

When did you go to Ireland?

There is also a difference of attitude that is often more important than the time factor.

  • "What did you do at school today?" is a question about activities, and considers the school day as finished.
  • "What have you done at school today?" is a question about results - "show me", and regards the time of speaking as a continuation of the school day.

 

PRESENT PERFECT + for, since

Using the present perfect, we can define a period of time before now by considering its duration, with for + a period of time, or by considering its starting point, with since + a point in time.

For + a period of time

  • for six years, for a week, for a month, for hours, for two hours.
  • I have worked here for five years.

Since + a point in time

  • since this morning, since last week, since yesterday,
  • since I was a child, since Wednesday, since 2 o''clock.
  • I have worked here since 1990.

present perfect with for

  • She has lived here for twenty years.
  • We have taught at this school for a long time.
  • Alice has been married for three months.
  • They have been at the hotel for a week.

present perfect with since

  • She has lived here since 1980.
  • We have taught at this school since 1965
  • Alice has been married since March 2nd.
  • They have been at the hotel since last Tuesday.

Note:

  • For and since can both be used with the past perfect.
  • Since can only be used with perfect tenses, for can also be used with the simple past.

Past Perfect Continuous Form

The past perfect continuous is composed of two elements - the past perfect of the verb to be (=had been) + the present participle (base+ing).

Examples

Subject

had been

verb-ing

I

had been

walking

 

Affirmative

She

had been

trying

Negative

We

hadn''t been

sleeping

Interrogative

Had you

been

eating

Interrogative negative

Hadn''t they

been

living

Example: to buy, past perfect continuous

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

I had been buying

I hadn''t been buying

Had I been buying?

You had been buying

You hadn''t been buying

Had you been buying

He,she,it had been buying

He hadn''t been buying

Had she been buying?

We had been buying

We hadn''t been buying

Had we been buying?

You had been buying

You hadn''t been buying

Had you been buying

They had been buying

They hadn''t been buying

Had they been buying

Past Perfect Continuous: Function

The past perfect continuous corresponds to the present perfect continuous, but with reference to a time earlier than ''before now''. Again, we are more interested in the process.

Examples

  • Had you been waiting long before the taxi arrived?
  • We had been trying to open the door for five minutes when Jane found her key.
  • It had been raining hard for several hours and the streets were very wet.
  • Her friends had been thinking of calling the police when she walked in.

This form is also used in reported speech. It is the equivalent of the past continuous and the present perfect continuous in direct speech:

  • Jane said "I have been gardening all afternoon." Jane said she had been gardening all afternoon.
  • When the police questioned him, John said "I was working late in the office that night." When the police questioned him, John told them he had been working late in the office that night.

 

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Title The Man Booker Prize

The Man Booker Prize

The Man Booker Prize for Fiction is awarded every year for a novel written by a writer from the Commonwealth or the Republic of Ireland and it aims to represent the very best in contemporary fiction. The prize was originally called the Booker-McConnell Prize, which was the name of the company that sponsored it, though it was better-known as simply the ''Booker Prize''. In 2002, the Man Group became the sponsor and they chose the new name, keeping ''Booker''.

Publishers can submit books for consideration for the prize, but the judges can also ask for books to be submitted they think should be included. Firstly, the Advisory Committee give advice if there have been any changes to the rules for the prize and selects the people who will judge the books. The judging panel changes every year and usually a person is only a judge once.

Great efforts are made to ensure that the judging panel is balanced in terms of gender and professions within the industry, so that a writer, a critic, an editor and an academic are chosen along with a well-known person from wider society. However, when the panel of judges has been finalized, they are left to make their own decisions without any further involvement or interference from the prize sponsor.

The Man Booker judges include critics, writers and academics to maintain the consistent quality of the prize and its influence is such that the winner will almost certainly see the sales increase considerably , in addition to the £50,000 that comes with the prize.

Questions

Q1 - The Republic of Ireland



Q2 - The Man group



Q3 - Books can be submitted



Q4 - Who advises on changes to the rules?



Q5 - The judging panel



Q6 - The sponsors of the prize



Q7 - The consistent quality of the prize



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I wish you

Comfort on difficult days ’’

Smile when sadness intrudes ’’

Rainbows to follow the clouds’’

Sunset to warm your heart’’

Gentle hugs when sprits sag’’

Friendship to brighten your being’’

Beauty for your eyes to see’’

Confidence for when you doubt’’

Faith so that you can believe’’

Courage to know yourself ’’

Patient to accept the truth ’’

And love to complete your life’’

 

 

I wish you all these things and more

 

 

Narges Bahreini

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U-Shape classroom

 By: N.Bahreini

 

Introduction

Effective classroom training is not something that magically happens when a trainer spends several hours or days in front of a class of participants. Effective training requires coordinating many elements of instruction, engaging each participant in a way that promotes learning, and facilitating sharing of ideas between participants. This paper will discuss various ways you can go about increasing the effectiveness of classroom training through good preparation and the development and usage of strategies which promote group participation and learning.

 Seating arrangement is critical                                                                                                                                                                                  

 

Turn your attention to the setting arrangement . Obviously the first consideration is to be sure that all students have unhindered sight  lines to any place you expect them to look.

Don’t stop there,though .Are the students too close or too far apart?Close seating encourages side conversations,and may make some students feel cramped.Distant seating discourages collaboration.                                                                              

Can you ,the instructor ,move freely about the room ?You need to be able to walk behind and beside every student easily and unobtrusively.If there is a place in the room that you can’t reach , be assured that your most needy and/or  disruptive student will still there.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   

It’s a fact that the farther students from the instructor ,the less attention they are likely to play in class.If you have a room of,say,five rows ,you must be able to move to the back of the room while teaching to neutralize this problem.   

The physical setting-the room layout-has a huge impact on how your speech will be received.Pick the wrong seating arrangement and your speech starts out in enemy territory.So,what should it be?’’U’’ shape?”Classroom” rows,or a conference table? A U-shape can be ideal ,in that all students are on the front row,but this seating arrangement takes the most space.                                                                                       With a small  audience-15to25people- the best seating arrangement is a ‘U’. 

The worst is the traditional’’classroom’’(row after row) or one l-o-o-o-ng conference table.

A U-shape is ideal if participants need to see the front of the room and work in small groups.Because this style is conductive to both formal presantation and collaborative work.

                                                                                                   

·        A  ‘’U’’ (horseshoe) permits the speaker to move ,literally  creating greater closeness and encouraging audience       participation.

                               

·        It also makes it easier for audience members to establish frequent eye contact  with the speaker and with each other.                                                         

·        Some teachers configure students seats in U-shape instead of rows,for easier monitoring of computer screens. 

·        Cooperation takes place easier in U-shape classroom setting. 

·        Teachers should arrange students in a circle or in a U-shape so that  they will be able to see all  students  at all times . 

·        U-shape is  very useful  since students feel they are important as an individual. 

·        The teacher can see and easily move close to students.

 

Some teachers want their students  in a "U" shape because rows are "boring" and too"traditional." Rows also apparently promote individualism, which would-be teachers learn is bad, rather than cooperation, which encourages students to talk and work together.

Many teachers have abandoned the 6x5 row and column arrangement, preferring a circular or U shape. They do this not because rows are "boring" and "traditional". They do it because a circular format is much more appropriate for classroom discussions. Such an arrangement requires that students look at each other when they argue or debate, rather than at the teacher.

And there is nothing more or less individualistic about rows over circles. It is true, in a circle, students actually have to interact with each other. However it is arguable that requiring a student to interact promotes individuality, since it promotes one's capacity to hold one's own in a fair and equal exchange. If anything, by contrast, rows subsume individuality, because they teach that conformity and subservience to the master at the front of the room is all that matters.

 

 

 

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